Thursday, January 23, 2020
Personal Narrative - Athlete to Academia Essay -- Autobiography Essay,
Athlete to Academia Instead of feeling pressure to conform as a student at the University of Georgia, I have found that being in college has made me value the importance of a higher education more so than I ever had before. During high school, my primary goal was to play well enough to receive a football scholarship. At that time, my focus was not on academics. However, since I've arrived at the University of Georgia, my entire concept of the value of a college degree has slowly changed. Rather than seeing just football in my future, I can now picture myself as a football player with a college degree. Consequently, instead of having a negative impact on my personal growth, college has helped me broaden as a person. Contrary to popular opinion, athletes do have interests outside their sport. Since I enrolled at Georgia, I have found myself intrigued by the painters whose visions were presented in my art class, as well as by the empathy displayed in my social work class. I feel as if I've grown as a person while learning more about the world I live in. My scope of und...
Wednesday, January 15, 2020
Controlling Trafficking in Women Essay
Trafficking of human beings, especially women and children, has become a worldwide phenomenon that affects all countries regardless of economic status. It is an illegal commercial trade wherein human beings are coerced to work against their will and are subjected to abusive environments. These services include include prostitution, arranged marriage, begging, domestic servitude, and forced labor. No matter what the country is or what services they are supposed to render, most trafficked women are held against their wishes, abused, and make little or no money.            The Global Alliance Against Trafficking in Women defines trafficking as â€Å"All acts involved in the recruitment or transportation of a woman, within or across national borders, for work or services, by means of violence or threat of violence, debt bondage, deception or other coercion†(Caldwell). It entails the use of various forms of coercion, fraud, intimidation, and brute force to obtain labor and other services for little no benefit to the person being trafficked.            Human Trafficking is not a new practice. This global trafficking business that reaps huge profits for traffickers and their collaborators has been present since the start of civilization. What is new is the sophistication and complexity by which it is carried out. The shocking thing is how this type of trade actually flourishes in this â€Å"time of enlightenment†where the rights of human beings are given utmost importance. It is a violation of human rights whenever a human being is placed under any conditions against his/her will. This phenomenon of the contemporary era can be regarded as â€Å"the modern day equivalent of slavery†(â€Å"Trafficking in human beings†). It is of the utmost importance that this practice of subjecting people to slave-like conditions be put to a stop.            Women form the majority of human trafficking victims and are the ones most at risk. They are especially vulnerable due to the lack of employment opportunities. Oftentimes, traffickers promise them good jobs and better lives, but they only become prostitutes and sweatshop workers. Agents and brokers arrange their papers and transport, but when they reach their destinations, they discover the real nature of the work. The women often experience rape and other forms of violence and are enslaved in abusive conditions where a bid for freedom is nearly impossible, even lethal. Extent of the Problem            Trafficking is a problem of global proportion affecting virtually every country. According to the United Nations, human trafficking generates around 5-7 billion dollars each year (Raymond). It is currently one of the most lucrative types of international crime, only next to arms trafficking and illegal drugs (International Labour Organization). But unlike arms and drug trafficking, the punishment for human trafficking is relatively light in most countries (Raymond).            Determining the extent of and getting the exact statistics on human trafficking has proven to be a daunting task due to the illegal and underground nature of the activity. Researchers provide different estimates on the number of individuals being trafficked each year. A US Government report in 2004 estimates a figure of about 600,000-800,000 individuals trafficked annually across borders (â€Å"Trafficking†), the majority of which happening in â€Å"South East Asia, Japan, Russia and Europe†(â€Å"Trafficking in human beings†). The aforementioned figure does not include those who are â€Å"trafficked internally†(â€Å"Trafficking†), and the United Nations reports that up to 4 million people are transported worldwide each year (Raymond). Women make up around 80-90 percent of all human trafficking cases, and majority of them are sexually exploited either through sexual slavery or forced prostitution (â€Å"Trafficking in human beings†). Factors Influencing the Trafficking of Women            Trafficking of women is a rapidly growing problem and several factors have led to its growth. In order for appropriate measures to take place, these factors should be identified and addressed. In order for the government to counteract its development, a coordinated response from international and regional authorities that addresses the major factors and root causes of the problem should be enacted. In addition to this, prevention measures should be done such as information dissemination, empowerment, and education of women in order to avert possible victimization and re-victimization.            One of the major factors influencing the trafficking of women is the lure of easy profit in prostitution and other forms of commercialized sex (United Nations â€Å"Further Actions†). Researchers and human rights advocates also point out that the demand for women’s bodies from the male population drives trafficking patterns. The male demand for sexual prostitution, coupled by the increasing poverty, drives women into vulnerable situations that are exploited by sex traffickers. For women, unequal labor opportunities, gender discrimination, and other restrictions and gender-based stereotypes have led them to seek employment opportunities in other countries. Other driving forces include â€Å"discrimination against women; restrictive migration laws; a lack of information about the realities and dangers of trafficking and insufficient penalties against traffickers†(â€Å"Trafficking in human beings†). Prostitution and Sex Trafficking            Trafficking of women comes in three most common forms: sex tourism, mail-order bride services, and prostitution (Raymond). The link between trafficking and prostitution is a clear one. The demand for commercialized sex is the biggest driving force behind the trafficking industry. It provides the economic incentive for traffickers to perpetrate the exploitation of women. For example, reports show that an increase in human traffic accompanies places where military troops and peacekeeping forces are stationed (CATW International).            Prostituted individuals have little or no protection from harm and violence due to their profession. Their bodies, being treated as commodities, are often subject to abuse and debasement. They also often suffer severe physical and mental problems due to injuries caused by such abuse (CATW International). The National Security Presidential Directive on Combating Trafficking in Persons states that â€Å"prostitution and related activities are inherently harmful and dehumanizing, identifying these activities as contributing to the phenomenon of trafficking, and opposing the regulation of prostitution as a legitimate form of work for any human being†(qtd. in Raymond). Anti-Trafficking Legislation            There is a need for comprehensive legislation and anti-trafficking laws that centers on the victims’ interests and issues. Several laws exist, such as the United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children (also referred to as the UN Trafficking Protocol) which demands corroborating territories to fight the spread of human trafficking by â€Å"protect[ing] and assisting victims of such trafficking†and â€Å"promot[ing] cooperation among states in order to meet those objectives†(United Nations â€Å"Protocol†).            United States President Bush signed a Human Trafficking bill this January, renewing the Trafficking Victims Protection Act. This is the first federal law for the punishment of traffickers and that especially addresses the issue of trafficking (â€Å"Bush Signs†). Also, at the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995, the Beijing Platform for Action addressed the trafficking of women in the context of abuse and violence against them (â€Å"Trafficking in Women†) rather than regarding them as criminals or illegal migrants. Many countries around the world are also currently doing modest initiatives to eliminate the human trafficking trade. Criminalization of Purchasing Women for Prostitution and Punishment for Traffickers            One solution being proposed to decrease the traffickers’ incentive of transporting women is the legal prohibition of purchasing sexual services. This is rooted on the idea that prostitution (legalized or not) increases trafficking rates (CATW International). Men who purchase women for sex are major players in the supply-demand chain driving the trafficking industry. In order to decrease demand, those purchasing the service should be penalized (Bortel). This is but a logical extension to the premise that since illegal to provide such services (in many countries, the prostituted women are also punished by law), it must also be illegal to obtain them (Bortel).            Another obstacle to the fight against trafficking is that the traffickers are rarely caught or punished, and if they are they are just penalized for the equivalent of a minor crime (Smith). In addition to this, many countries consider victims as illegal aliens, and are deported or penalized, while the traffickers get away scot-free. In the United States law practice, there is an attitude that â€Å"trafficking in women qualifies as a lesser crime than trafficking drugs†(Bortel). In this light, legislation that gives harsher penalties to traffickers must be enacted, including strengthening existing laws that protect the rights and interests of women. Works Cited Bortel, Angela. â€Å"Ending Trafficking in Women: A Victim-Centered Approach to Legislation.†Professionals for Cooperation. Jun. 2001. Moscow State University. Accessed 19 Apr. 2006 . â€Å"Bush Signs Anti-Human Trafficking Bill.†CBS News. 10 Jan. 2006. Associated Press. Accessed 19 Apr. 2006   . Caldwell, Gillion. â€Å"Trafficking Women in the Former U.S.S.R.†The Trafficking of NIS Women            Abroad. Sept. 1997. International League of Human Rights. Accessed 19 Apr. 2006            . CATW International. â€Å"Statement by CATW at the United Nations Commission on the Status of            Women.†Coalition Against Trafficking in Women. 5 Mar. 2003. Accessed 19 Apr. 2006            . International Labour Organization. International Labour Office. â€Å"A global alliance against forced            labour.† Global Report under the Follow-up to the ILO Declaration on Fundamental    Principles and Rights at Work. Geneva: 11 May 2006. Raymond, Janice G. â€Å"The Ongoing Tragedy of International Slavery and Human Trafficking: An            Overview.†Coalition Against Trafficking in Women. 29 Oct. 2003. Accessed 19 Apr.    2006 Smith, Virginia. â€Å"Trafficking women and children.†Catholic New Times. 20 Mar. 2005.           LookSmart, Ltd. Accessed 19 Apr. 2006 . â€Å"Trafficking.†Anti-Slavery: Today’s Fight for Tomorrow’s Freedom. Anti-Slavery International.            Accessed 19 Apr. 2006         . â€Å"Trafficking in human beings†. Wikipedia. 11 Apr. 2006. Wikimedia Foundation. Accessed 19            Apr. 2006 . â€Å"Trafficking in Women.†Women Watch: Information and Resources on Gender Equality and   Empowerment of Women. 22 Nov. – 17 Dec. 2004. United Nations. Accessed 19 Apr.     2006 . United Nations. â€Å"Further actions and initiatives to implement the Beijing Declaration and         Platform for Action,†Women Watch: Information and Resources on Gender Equality and Empowerment of Women. 16 Nov. 2000. United Nations. Accessed 19 Apr. 2006            . â€â€. â€Å"Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and    Children.†UN Nations Crime and Justice Information Network. 15 Nov. 2005. United   Nations Office on Drugs and Crimes. Accessed 19 Apr. 2006       . Â
Tuesday, January 7, 2020
Media Stereotypes Essay examples - 1432 Words
Media Stereotypes â€Å"Media stereotypes are inevitable, especially in the advertising, entertainment and news industries, which need as wide an audience as possible to quickly understand information. Stereotypes act like codes that give audiences a quick, common understanding of a person or group of peopleâ€â€usually relating to their class, ethnicity or race, gender, sexual orientation, social role or occupation.†Stereotypes are deeply embedded in every society in numerous ways. The dictionary definition of a stereotype is â€Å"one that is regarded as embodying or conforming to a set image or type.†Stereotyping or Labeling is a technique that â€Å"attempts to arouse prejudices in an audience by labeling the object of the propaganda campaign†¦show more content†¦Propoganda may seem like a topic of the past as opposed to a topic in the contemparary field of studies. This is because propganda was always related to movements like Hitler and Stalin in the 1930s. Even though nothing of that scale exists today, propganda still can be as serious as the swastika or a minor as a riddle. Its repititive and perasuasive techniques are found in all fields such as politics, journalism and addvertising. As Anthony Pratkanis and Elliot Aronson point out: Every day we are bombarded with one persuasive communication after another. These appeals persuade not through the give-and-take of argument and debate, but through the manipulation of symbols and of our most basic human emotions. F or better or worse, ours is an age of propaganda. (Pratkanis and Aronson, 1991) Apart from all other forms of media the growth of the internet since the 1990s has had agreat impact on the sudden explosion of communications where any kind of messages can be uploaded uncensored to any kind of audience. For the first time in history people from all walks of live and from every corner of the world are interacting on a new level. This is a magnificent development but the negative repercussion is that it works against the people of color and support theShow MoreRelatedStereotypes And Stereotypes Of The Media997 Words  | 4 Pagesbitch.†said Bette Davis. Stereotype is one of the big issue in our world right now. This quote refers to one of the categories of stereotype that is gender stereotype. As an chinese indonesian I have some experience of being stereotyped just because of my race. The media has 2 side view of media, on the one side it helps people educate about stereotype and on the other side it also promotes stereotype.Stereotype is something that ne eds to stop, this is because stereotype gives people a misinterpretationRead MoreStereotypes Of The Media1153 Words  | 5 PagesThe media has a huge influence on young people today it is a huge influence because it is about the stereotypes that they are using and how the use it. They use it to make you think that teens are always bad and doing bad things like partying getting drunk doing drugs etc in this essay I will be writing about the 2 stereo types the first one is going to be the plastics and the other one is jock from glee. Stereotypes are used in films to help change the media and make them think about others differentlyRead MoreStereotypes And Stereotypes Of Western Media1459 Words  | 6 PagesStereotypes have the ability to put a person down. To make them feel as if they do not belong. In this cruel society, there is an image being portrayed of every individual. Ethnicity, race, religion, gender, and many more. This image many not describe who you are as an ind ividual, but it is how you are judged by this barbarous world. As more Chinese people came to America, the more they were stereotyped. They did not have the same advantages and treatment as the majority. They were lookedRead MoreStereotypes And Stereotypes Of The Media2214 Words  | 9 PagesStereotypes are inaccurate depictions of a certain group of people based off a cliche addressed to them by anyone. This natural act which often feeds off of implicit biases that are unconsciously brought about by many aspects from past experiences to the environment you are within. Whether these ideas advertised by the media are used to fuel desires for the â€Å"greater good†or used to instil hate within a community, they have been a part of society for generations. Research and instances throughoutRead MoreGender Stereotypes In The Media1207 Words  | 5 Pages Gender Stereotypes are everywhere in the world. This paper will focus on the formation of Gender stereotypes through different media sources. The media sources that will be used include television shows, movies and magazines. Thus the paper will also explore the effect that gender stereotyping may have on development of a person’s social and individual identity. There were many different media sources that I used to see where Gender Stereotypes were predominant. First of all I reviewed differentRead MoreStereotypes And Perceptions Of The Media Essay1917 Words  | 8 Pages Stereotypes in Media Ta’Kendra Elbert Indiana University  ¥ What is a stereotype that is used in the media? What are the consequences of those stereotypes? Use examples to illustrate your points. Support with research. The United States is often referred to as a â€Å"melting pot†; a place where people of all races, genders, and colors can live together and have the same opportunities. That sounds good, but it’s not always how things necessarily pan out. There are drawbacks that come fromRead MoreMass Media and Stereotypes710 Words  | 3 Pages Mass media plays an important role of stereotypes in our present-day world, by broadcasting information and entertainment to a variety of audiences. Stereotypes act like codes that give audiences a common understanding of a person or group of people. Media ranges from television, press, books, radio, and the internet. Media propaganda is the other form of media that is described as manipulation. It is a powerful factor that influences our beliefs and attitudes about others. Race, gender, and economicRead More Female Stereotypes In The Media Essay973 Words  | 4 Pages Female Stereotypes In The Media In the media the most common female stereotypes, are the housewife and the blonde bimbo. The Housewife. Chained to the kitchen sink, always cleaning and cooking. An old stereotype. In the advertisement for Shake `n Vac a woman is doing the vacuuming and dancing around shaking Shake `n Vac on the floor. This is a stereotype for the reason that a man is nowhere to be found. But in advertisements for intelligent matters likeRead MoreAfrican American Stereotypes in the Media1396 Words  | 6 PagesJakaya McCambry 10/02/12 African American Stereotypes in the Media When I first heard someone say, â€Å"All African American people are Ghetto,†I was very offended that someone would make this type of assumption about my culture, and I thought how ignorant this person must be; but then I stopped and wondered why other people would think this about us. I asked her why she would say something like this, and she instantly listed shows like Tosh.O and Chelsea Lately, which highlight my culture in aRead MoreRacial Stereotypes Of The Media Essay1918 Words  | 8 PagesCommunication Nancy Stillwell 11/30/16 A Look at Racial Stereotypes in the Media The media is our way to communicate ideas, feelings, news, entertainment, and anything the heart desires to anywhere and anyone. Our lives revolve around the media. No matter how we feel about it, we are surrounded by it. Unfortunately, as a society that revolves around media, it is hard to be uninfluenced by what we see. We are retaining the information thrown at us by the media whether we realize it or not and it hits everyone
Monday, December 30, 2019
Sunday, December 22, 2019
Dr. Martin Luther King s Dream - 1826 Words
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr’s â€Å"dream†is based on his electrifying ‘I Have a Dream’ speech that he gave in Washington on August 1963. His speech was a paradigm of how he wanted to have peace and tranquility in America. He believed that all people should be viewed as equal, and have the same access to jobs and freedom, no matter their skin color or nationality. The elation around President Barack Obama’s election has blinded most people from the sad reality for Blacks in America today. They seem to think that his election was the ultimate moment for achieving racial equality. President Barack Obama’s election was not the realization of Dr. Martin Luther King’s dream. In order for me to explain why President Obama’s election isn’t the realization of King’s dream, I must first elucidate exactly what his dream was. Martin Luther King Jr was a leader in the Civil Rights movement, a social movement whose goals were to end racial segregation and discrimination against Black Americans. â€Å"The March on Washington in 1963, which brought together a quarter-million civil rights advocates, provided visible proof of the many grassroots movements outside the south that helped to forge the national civil rights movement†(Franklin Higginbotham 533) The 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s were extremely difficult times for Blacks in America, much like today. They were not treated like white Americans simply because of their darker colored skin. There were also laws, such as the Jim Crow laws, thatShow MoreRelatedDr. Martin Luther King Jr. s `` I Have A Dream?852 Words  | 4 PagesAccording to Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s, â€Å"I Have a Dream†speech, Blacks were denied their equal rights of life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness (I Have a Dream). The Emancipation Proclamation, written by Abraham Lincoln, supposedly freed all slaves but Blacks were still treated with disrespect. Blacks needed to have equal rights for many reasons. Blacks were mistreated, they were subjected to injustice and biased laws. Blacks were the â€Å"victims of the unspeakable horrors of police brutality†Read MoreDr. Martin Luther King s I Have A Dream Speech1696 Words  | 7 PagesDr. Martin Luther King’s â€Å"I Have a Dream†speech has served as inspiration to multiple generations in the 52 years since his words were spoken. Individuals and groups have rallied behind his message of equality and peace and quoted this speech countless times in an attempt to further Dr. King’s dream of bringing racial injustice to an end. In this speech, which was delivered as the culmination of the March for Jobs in 1962, Dr. King addressed nearly 250,000 people to bring awareness to the injusticesRead MoreDr. Martin Luther King s I Have A Dream Essay1331 Words  | 6 PagesDr. Martin Luther King’s â€Å"I have a dream†speech in 1963 emphasized the idea that the founding of the United States entailed a promise of equality for all citizens. This, of course, would have been a very important idea in the mind of Dr. King and his followers as they sought to end racism in the United States, and gain civil liberties for blacks across the nation. Although that movement was turning point regarding civil liberties and racism in the United States, the work was certainly not finishedRead MoreObservations On The s I Have A Dream Speech By Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.881 Words  | 4 Pageshappened 5 years ago, Martin Luther King, Jr. delivered his I Have a Dream Speech on the Washington Mall 47 years ago, and Mother Teresa was born a century ago. Monday: Katrina; Tuesday: I Have a Dream; Today: Mother Teresa After spending a great deal of time on and devoting a good deal of space to the two previous subjects in this series on recent anniversaries, 2005 s devastating Hurricane Katrina and the world-changing 1963 I Have a Dream speech by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., I had lookedRead MoreRhetorical Analysis Of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. s I Have A Dream 1448 Words  | 6 Pageswords have been spoken than those uttered by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s, â€Å"I have a dream,†speech. Perhaps one of the most famous and paradigm shifting speeches in all of history, Dr. King’s was spoken with candor, authenticity, fervor, and an enormous amount of tact. With his incredible intelligence and eloquence as a doctorate in Theological Studies, his establishment as such a respected leader, and his fervor and charisma in delivering the speech, Dr. King effectively established Logos, Ethos andRead MoreAnalysis of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.s I Have A Dream Speech619 Words  | 3 Pages28, 1963, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. delivered one of the most famous speeches of all time to an audience of more than 200,000 civil rights supporters on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial. In his, â€Å"I have a dream†speech, King addressed his encouragement of white and black people working together to achieve racial peace and harmony. He especially wanted to teach the young blacks that equality could be gained through the use of non-violence. The main reason King used nonviolenceRead Moreâ€Å"a Comparison of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.’S ‘I Have a Dream’ Speech and ‘Letter from a Birmingham Jail’†.1444 Words  | 6 Pagesâ€Å"A Comparison of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.’s ‘I Have a Dream’ speech and ‘Letter from a Birmingham Jail’†. 9% Similarity Born in Atlanta Georgia in 1929, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., conceivably lived as one of the greatest social and religious leaders in a country where a group of its citizens had to endure excruciating conditions of disenfranchisement, inferiority and degradation of a second class citizenship by reasons of race, color or origin. In effort to condemn allRead MoreRhetorical Analysis of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.s I Have A Dream Speech915 Words  | 4 Pages Dr. Martin Luther King delivered his I Have a Dream speech to the thousands of African Americans who had marched on Washington, D.C. at the height of the Civil Rights Movement. The date of the speech was August 28, 1963, but it is one that will live for generations. Of course his purpose was to convince his audience on several fronts: he sought to persuade the black community to stand up for the rights afforded them under the Constitution, and he also sought to Read MoreAnalysis Of Martin Luther King Jr s I Have A Dream Speech1480 Words  | 6 PagesRights Movement, Martin Luther King Jr s I Have A Dream speech was broadcasted across the nation and heard by millions of Americans on August 28, 1963. Throughout the decades, many have promoted the importance of racial equality in America. Leaders such as William J. Clinton, Barack Obama, and George W. Bush have contributed to modern social movements by, doing as Dr. King himself, giving speeches to varying audiences concerning the issue of racial inequality. Above all, Martin Luther King Jr made theRead MoreMartin Malcolm : A Dream Or A Nightmare951 Words  | 4 Pagesâ€Å"Martin Malcolm America Peace†If one man never steps forward to show all the others that change is possible, nothing will ever change. When you look back at history of the American civil rights movement, Malcolm X and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. are still often two of the first names even someone of today’s society may think of. They were, and still are, some of the most influential men to ever live. As young African-American men living during a time of harsh global, but most importantly
Saturday, December 14, 2019
The FAO-organised World Food Conference in 1974 Free Essays
Introduction The acceptance of the term at the FAO-organised World Food Conference in 1974 has led to a growing literature on the subject, most of which grab ‘food security’ as an unproblematic starting point from which to address the persistence of so-called ‘food insecurity’ (Gilmore Huddleston, 1983; Maxwell, 1990; 1991; Devereux Maxwell, 2001). A common activity followed by academics specialising in food security is to debate the suitable definition of the term; a study undertaken by the Institute of Development Studies (IDS) cites over 200 competing definitions (Smith et al., 1992). We will write a custom essay sample on The FAO-organised World Food Conference in 1974 or any similar topic only for you Order Now Simon Maxwell, who has produced work commonly referenced as foundational to food security studies (Shaw, 2005), distinguishes three paradigm shifts in its meaning: ‘from the global/national to the household/individual; from a food first perspective to a livelihood perspective; and from objective indicators to subjective perceptions’ (Maxell, 1996; Devereux Maxwell, 2001). A primary focus on food supplies as the major cause of food insecurity was given credence at the 1974 World Food Conference (McCaston et al., 1998). But the limitations of this supply focus came to light during the food crisis that plagued Africa in the mid-1980’s and the paradigm shifted to explore individual and household food security as opposed to food security from a national perspective (Argenal, no date) and the household food security approach emphasized both availability and stable access to food. Research work carried out in the late 1980s and early 1990s also focused on food and nutritional security (Frankenberger, 1992). It showed that food is only one factor in the malnutrition equation, and that, in addition to dietary intake and diversity, health and disease and maternal and child care are also important determinants (UNICEF, 1990). Thus, the evolution of the concepts and issues related to household food and nutritional security led to the development of the con cept of household livelihood security (McCaston et al., 1998). Until the late 1980s, most practitioners and theorists were focusing on a 2,100 calories a day standard, which was assumed to be the amount needed for any individual on a daily basis to avoid hunger. More recently, the ethical and human rights dimension of food security has come to the fore. In 1996, the formal adoption of a new definition by World Food Summit delegates reinforces the multidimensional nature of food security; it includes food access, availability, food use and stability (FAO, 2006). This has enabled policy responses focused on the promotion and recovery of livelihood options and included the concepts of vulnerability, risk coping and risk management (FAO, 2006). In short, as the link between food security, starvation and crop failure becomes a thing of the past, the study of food insecurity as a social and political construct has emerged (Devereux et al., 2001). The Rome Declaration of 1996, primarily laid the foundations for diverse paths to a common objective of food security at all levels: ‘food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life’. This widely accepted definition points to the following dimensions of food security (FAO, 1996): Food availability: The availability of sufficient quantities of food of appropriate quality, supplied through domestic production or imports (including food aid). Food access: Access by individuals to adequate resources for acquiring appropriate foods for a nutritious diet. Utilization: Utilization of food through adequate diet, clean water, sanitation and health care to reach a state of nutritional well-being where all physiological needs are met. This brings out the importance of non-food inputs in food security. Stability: To be food secure, a population, household or individual must have access to adequate food at all times. The concept of stability can therefore refer to both the availability and access dimensions of food security. Although nutrition scientists distinguish between ‘food security’ (availability of food on the global, national, local and household levels), on the one hand, and ‘nutritional security’ (satisfactory nutritional status of individuals), on the other (Oltersdorf and Weingartner, 1996), economic, social and behavioural scientists tend to consider ‘food security’ as a more comprehensive term that incorporates both concepts. In the above definitional context, the FAO (1996) stated that to achieve food security at national level, all four of its components ? availability, accessibility, utilization and stability ? must be adequate and that the opposite of food security is regarded as food insecurity. However, national food security depends on the household-level food security as a fundamental unit. Chen and Kates (1994) stated that ‘at a household level, food security tends to be equated with the sufficiency of household entitlements – that bundle of food-production resources, income available for food purchases, and gifts or assistance sufficient to meet the aggregate food requirements of all household members‘. The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) concisely defines household food security as â€Å"the capacity of a household to procure a stable and sustain-able basket of adequate food†(IFAD, 1992). Adequacy may be defined in terms of quality and quantity of food, which contribute to a diet that meets the nutritional needs of all household members. Stability refers to the household’s ability to procure food across seasons and transitory shortages. Sustainability is the most complex of the terms, encompassing issues of resou rce use and management, human dignity, and self-reliance, among others (IFAD, 1992). Thus, household food security is as integrated system of the four subsystems of production, exchange, delivery and consumption (Cannon, 1991). Theoretically, poverty, household vulnerability, and undernourishment may be distinct conditions. Yet, in practice, these conditions intersect and overlap: poor households are usually most vulnerable to transitory and chronic food insecurity, hence they are often undernourished (Maxwell and Frankenberger, 1992). But the individuals within food-insecure households cannot be assumed to suffer from hunger equally; there are differences in distribution and negotiating abilities of individuals (Argenal, no date). Oshaug (1985) therefore identified three kinds of households: â€Å"enduring households†, which maintain household food security on a continuous basis; â€Å"resilient households†, which suffer shocks but recover quickly; and â€Å"fragile households†, which become increasingly insecure in response to shocks. Similar approaches are found elsewhere (Benson et al., 1986). During the 1990s, authors and practitioners concerned with vulnerability to food security have engaged to define vulnerability and theorize how far people had slid towards a state of food insecurity (Dilley and Boudreau, 2001). The foundation of the concept is closely associated with poverty. But it is not the same as poverty; rather underlying poverty contributes to increased vulnerability (Young et al., 2001). In addition to income, there is a multiplicity of other factors that co-determine whether an individual will go hungry. In 1981, Sen challenged the then widely held conviction that a lack of food availability was the primary explanation for famines; instead, he posited lack of access as the key to understanding who went hungry and why. Because access issues are entrenched in social, political and economic relations, Sen’s work represented a clear shift in emphasis from natural to societal causes of famine (Blaikie et al., 1994). After Sen’s (1981) entitlement ap proach, many authors (Swift, 1989; Borton and Shoham, 1991; Maxwell and Frankenberger, 1992; Ribot, 1995; Middleton and O’Keefe, 1998) sought to operationalize Sen’s ideas by using the word â€Å"vulnerability†to refer to the complex web of socio-economic determinants. In food-related contexts, the question, â€Å"vulnerable to what?†is nearly universally answered by ‘famine’, ‘hunger’ and ‘the undesirable outcomes that vulnerable populations face’ (Dilley and Boudreau, 2001). Therefore, vulnerability denotes a negative condition that limits the abilities of individuals, households, communities and regions to resist certain debilitating processes and improve their well-being (Yaro, 2004). According to Chambers, ‘vulnerability refers to exposure to contingencies and stress, and the difficulty in coping with them. Vulnerability has thus two sides: an external side of risks, shocks, and stress to which an indivi dual or household is subject: and an internal side which is defencelessness, meaning a lack of means to cope without damaging loss’. Chambers’ definition has three basic coordinates (Watts Bohle 1993): The risk of exposure to crises, stress and shocks; The risk of inadequate capacities to cope with stress, crises and shocks; The risk of severe consequences of, and the attendant risks of slow or limited poverty (resiliency) from, crises, risk and shocks. According to this definition, the external shock or stress might be drought, market failure, conflict or forced migration and the internal aspect of vulnerability is to do with people’s capacity to cope with these external shocks (Young et al., 2001). As livelihoods are conjured of a combination of exchange entitlements, a massive change in a particularly important entitlement may be decisive in causing entitlement failures, leading to loss of livelihood and starvation. The impact of the external shock on livelihoods depends on the household’s vulnerability, which is a combination of the intensity of the external shock, and the household’s ability to cope (Young et al., 2001). Patterns of vulnerability have become increasingly dynamic, thereby necessitating a dynamic rather than static approach to vulnerability (Yaro, 2004). From this vantage point, the most vulnerable individuals, groups, classes and regions are those most exposed to perturbations, who possess t he most limited coping capability, who suffer the most from crisis impact and who are endowed with the most circumscribed capacity for recovery (Watts Bohle 1993). Thus, the two dimensions of vulnerability ? ‘sensitivity’ (the magnitude of the system’s response to an external event) and its ‘resilience’ (the ease and rapidity of the system’s recovery from stress) ? are crucial. The lower the resilience and the higher the sensitivity, the higher the vulnerability and vice versa (Gebrehiwot, 2001). Swift, (1989) and Davies (1996) further pointed out that most food-insecure households are characterized by a very low resilience. However, extending our understanding of the crucial links of entitlements to wider political processes, Watts Bohle (1993) argue that the mutually constituted triad of entitlements, empowerment and political economy configures vulnerability to food security (Yaro, 2004). Vulnerability will therefore be shaped by several forces that affect the three sources of provision of food and well-being of households. Watts Bohle (1993) see vulnerability as being caused by lack of entitlements, powerlessness and exploitative practices and they defined the space of vulnerability through an intersection of three causal powers: command over food (entitlement), state/civil society relations seen in political and institutional terms (enfranchisement/empowerment), and the structural-historical form of class relations within a specific political economy (surplus appropriation/crisis proneness) (Watts Bohle, 1993). In the entitlement lexicon, vulnerability can be defined as the risks associated with the threat of large-scale entitlement deprivation (Sen, 1990). These shifts are frequently posed as a function of market perturbations, with a particular emphasis on rural land, labour and commodity markets (Watts Bohle, 1993). The heart of empowerment approaches to vulnerability is politics and power. Empowerment encapsulates both freedom to make choices by people and acceptance of culpability by governments who are supposed to ensure the workings of the ‘right to food’ (Dreze et al., 1995) as part of the fundamental rights of the human personality. Vulnerability can be defined, in this view, as a political space and as a lack of rights broadly understood. Property rights ensure access to land and other assets, but political rights are also central to the process by which claims can be made over public resources as a basis for food security, and to maintain and defend entitlements (Watts Bohle, 1993). As a political space, vulnerability is inscribed in three domains: the domestic (patriarchal and generational politics), work (production politics) and the public sphere (state politics). Accordingly, vulnerability delimits those groups of society which collectively are denied critical rights within and between these political domains. Mead Cain (1983) identifies two fundamental realms of risk in rural Bangladesh; one is patriarchal, expressed through gender based differences in wage rates and access to and control over resources (within a specific notion of political ecology); the other is rooted in property rights, and specifically the difficulty for the rural peasantry to enforce and defend their property rights against rapacious local landlords and corrupt representatives of the state (Chen, 1991). Powerlessness can, therefore, be approached at a multiplicity of levels in entitlement and food security; intra-household rule-governed inequities over access to resources and property rights, village level stratification and processes of political inclusion and exclusion with respect to land or access to local credit, national level power (Harriss, 1989). On the other hand, the strength of a rigorously class-based political economy provides a class map on which historically specific processes of surplus appropriation and accumulation (Patnaik, 1991), and the corresponding configurations of crisis, conflicts and contradictions can be located. In general, these crisis tendencies arise under capitalism as a result of structural contradictions and conflicts between classes, between the relations and forces of production, and between accumulation and production conditions (Harvey 1982; O’Connor 1988). Conclusion Vulnerability is here understood not solely in terms of entitlement or empowerment (though both are implicit), but rather as an expression of capacity, specifically class capacity defined by the social relations of production in which individuals and households participate (Watts Bohle, 1993). In the class perspective, famine and hunger are poverty problems but this requires an understanding not simply of assets but of the relations by which surpluses are mobilized and appropriated. Class analyses of hunger and famine are similar, in many respects, to marginalization theories and to â€Å"political ecology†(Blaikie 1985; Blaikie and Brooldield 1987). Vulnerability to food security is thus a structural-historical phenomenon, which is shaped by the effects of commercialization, proletarianization and marginalization (Watts Bohle, 1993). Therefore, dynamic on-going political economic processes of extraction, accumulation, social differentiation, marginalization, and physical p rocesses all affect vulnerability (Yaro, 2004). How to cite The FAO-organised World Food Conference in 1974, Essay examples
Friday, December 6, 2019
Developing the American Identity free essay sample
Developing the American Identity In this essay I will discuss the development of an American Identity which Is evident in writing. Leading up to the American Revolution there were three periods. First exploration which led into colonialism, second the Puritan period, and last the Age of Reason which was actually responsible for the formation of a united America. Though each period was different, It wasnt until the Age of Reason that America started to form its own identity. In 1492 Christopher Columbus sailed from Spain to what he thought would be a shortcut to India. In reality he landed on a Bohemian island in the Caribbean. Europe was civilized living in cities and towns as well as having forms of writing. Natives of North and South America didnt have an alphabet at this time. Their cultures were oral so they relied on speaking to preserve important things. Many of the first writings in America were letters from explorers back to their rulers. In these letters they speak of great beauty and praise their kings. In a letter to Emperor Charles V, Caber De Vacant says, among all the princes who have reigned, I know of none who has enjoyed the universal esteem of your Majesty'(Caber De Vacant 30).Explorers had to report good things and try to please he rulers who were funding their expeditions. Caber De Vacant seemed to give an accurate depiction of what went on. Thomas 2 Other explorers seemed to over exaggerate to please their kings and to make a name for thrillers. English explorer John Smith seemed to spice up his ordeal with the Indians. He speaks of them as savages when It seems they actually treated him very well. The next phase In American literature started In 1620 with the arrival of the Pilgrims. Unlike the Puritans, the Pilgrims wanted nothing to do with the English church. Like the explorers before them they make recordings of their Journeys and vents that happened. Throughout the Puritan period most of their writings are Influenced by their religion. Anything that happens, be It good or bad, was caused by God. When William Bradford comes across Squanto he calls him a special instrument sent of God for their good beyond their expectation (Bedford 87). Something as good as a friendly English speaking Indian had to be Gods doing.In Mary Railroadings writing she blames herself for being taken captive by Indians. She thought that she hadnt been a good Christian and thats why she was taken. At this time the early Americans hadnt become enlightened so the only thing they could hind of to answer things is that God had to cause it. If bad things happened God must be testing you. If good things happened God was showing you good favor. Rowland said, we must rely on God himself, and our whole dependence must be upon 151) The early Americans hadnt yet gained an American identity.At this point they Just considered themselves Christians. They left England to escape religious persecution Thomas 3 1 OFF marked the end of Puritanism (AL 1700-1820 171). Matters and other clerical writers strove to maintain a world centered purely around religion. After his passing the 18th century saw huge changes. Science took huge bounds forwards and offered answers to questions that until this time had been an act of God. Intellectuals now believed in the power of the human mind that had been forgotten since the Roman Empire.The Enlightenment also brought changes to politics that would make America into what it is today. Benjamin Franklin was one of the early men to start thinking critically in America. He wrote the Poor Richards Almanac in 1733 and it became hugely popular. He would later sign the Declaration of Independence and become considered as one of Americas most important forefathers. He was also one of the first to question things that had been considered the norm. It is with Franklin that American writers started to develop similar identities.Too question everything and speak against things they didnt believe in. Education became more important and a highly educated man looks at what is going on around him and tries to understand why. Benjamin Franklin is one of the first to acknowledge that Indians were not as savage as they were viewed. He said Savages we call them, because their manners differ from ours, which we think the perfection of civility; they think he same of Concerning the Savages 227). Until this point, Indians were considered uncivilized because their culture was different than European culture.After a Swedish minister told some Indian chiefs the Christian creation story they told him theirs. The Thomas 4 minister responded what I delivered to you were sacred truths; but what you tell me is mere fable, fiction, and falsehood. A chief answered My brother, it seems your friends have not done you Justice in your education; they have not well instructed you in the rules of common civility. You saw that we, who understand and practice hose rules believed all your stores; why do you refuse to believe ours? (229). Franklin understood that different doesnt mean uncivil.Later Franklin wrote what he considered moral virtues Temperance, Silence, Order, Resolution, Frugality, Industry, Sincerity, Justice, Moderation, Cleanliness, Tranquility, Chastity, Humility. (The Autobiography Part II 285). They tend to go along with thoughts of an educated man. A Puritan would have simply said trust in God. Like Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson was a highly educated man who wrote about things he believed. In his Notes on the State of Virginia he wrote his thoughts on religion. He said But it does me no injury for my neighbor to say there are twenty gods, or no god (Notes on the State of Virginia 343).During the Puritan period this would have been heresy, which was punishable by being burned alive. During the Great Awakening in America people became aware of things that made no sense. It was a common thread found in literature from this time. Another writer from this time, Aloud Equation, even wrote about ending slavery (Aloud Equation 350). In his narrative of the life he speaks of a yard where slaves were sold and said Learned you this from your God, ho says unto you, Do unto all mean as you would me should do unto you? (Narrative of the Life 360). Until people started Thomas 5 neighbor as thy love yourself, it wasnt considered wrong to treat humans like animals. Through the beginning of America the styles of writing changed. What started as letters to please rulers, changed into writing on how to be a good Christian. Then after the Enlightenment, American writers began to gain their identity, question everything and speak against things we dont feel is right. These are still apparent in writings from today.
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